In the previous Canto, Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican, praised St. Francis of Assisi and then rebuked his own order for its laxity. Following his lead in this Canto, St. Bonaventure, a famous Franciscan monk, addresses Dante and praises St. Dominic. He ends with a rebuke against unfaithful Franciscans. Bonaventure then identifies himself and eleven other great theologians and thinkers who together comprise a second great crown of lights that surrounded the first one from which Thomas Aquinas spoke to Dante.
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The moment the lovely flame of Aquinas finished speaking to me I saw that holy crown of lights begin to turn again. And hardly had it completed a single round but it was joined by a second crown that enclosed it. Motion within motion was matched by song within song. Such matchless singing surpasses Sirens and Muses as does the source of light outshine that which reflects it.[1]Once St. Thomas Aquinas has finished naming all twelve saintly splendors in the first crown of lights above Dante and Beatrice, that crown is now joined by a second, larger, one that encircles it. … Continue reading It was like a double rainbow with parallel arcs of color as seen through misty clouds when Juno summons her handmaid Iris to appear. The outer arc was like a reflection of the one below, not unlike the voice of the nymph Echo which faded with the morning sun. And as the rainbow sealed the covenant between God and Noah, so these eternal lights wreathed themselves around us like two garlands – the outer one responding with love to the one inside.[2]Dante’s use of nature imagery here aids the imagination in “seeing” the splendor of the concentric crowns which remind him of a double rainbow. The use of classical figures from Virgil and Ovid … Continue reading
When all this sublime festival of singing, dancing, and light stopped at the same moment, a voice came to me from the heart of one of those new lights. Drawing me to itself as the compass points to the pole, it spoke thus: “The love that makes me shine with such beauty moves me to speak about the Church’s other guide and prince, the one who caused such loving words to be spoken about my leader. Since both devoted the whole of their lives to the same cause, we cannot speak of one without praising the other. Their fame and glory shine together as one in this glorious place.[3]The sudden silence after the “festival” Dante and Beatrice have witnessed above them highlights what comes next. A voice reaches out, as it were, from the heart of one of the lights on the new … Continue reading
“The followers of Christ, rearmed at the cost of His own death – few, fearful, and divided – were slow to follow his banner, until the eternal Emperor here on high, by His own initiative (though they were undeserving) came to their assistance when they were in great danger. As you were told, He sent two champions to help guide His bride – the Church – by their words and deeds and thus bring together His scattered followers.[4]The first reference here is probably best understood as Christ’s death and his subsequent commissioning of the Apostles to go out into the world and preach the Good News. Eventually, in spite of … Continue reading
“In that part of Spain where the wind blows from the west and with its sweet breath brings all of Europe’s leaves into bloom; not far from the shore beyond which – when a summer’s day is done – the sun hides itself from us, lies the town of Calaroga, so favored by fortune and protected by the great shield with the two lions – one above and one below. There was born that steadfast lover of the Christian faith, a holy athlete, gentle to his own but fierce to his enemies. The moment God created him his mind was alive with such a mighty power that he made his mother prophesy while he was still in her womb! And when, at the baptismal font, he was wedded to the Christian faith, both pledging to care for each other, his godmother had a dream in which she saw the wonderful fruit that would be produced by him and his heirs. And so that his true identity might be known, a spirit from Heaven named him as belonging to the Lord: Dominic.[5]There is a great deal to consider here. First, this passage is literarily akin to blowing up a balloon until it pops. It’s perhaps one of the best examples of how Dante can draw out an explanation … Continue reading
“Christ the Gardener chose him to help Him in the garden of His Church. True servant and messenger of his Master, he made it clear that his first love was that poverty by which Christ Himself lived. At times, his nursemaid found him lying silently on the ground as if to say, ‘I have come for this.’[6]In Dante’s Italian, by the way, the word Christ is always rhymed with itself. This is the first of four times in the Paradiso when this happens.The image of Christ as the Gardener of the Church … Continue reading O father Felix, ‘happily’ named![7]Felix, in both Latin and Spanish, means happy. O mother Giovanna, ‘grace of God’! Their names mean just what they say. Soon this favored son became a great theologian – not for worldly learning but for the love of true knowledge. In this way he nurtured the vineyard of Christ lest the vines die for lack of care.[8]Bonaventure makes clear that Dominic became a great theologian, but not like those whom Thomas Aquinas mentioned at the end of the previous canto, who strayed from the fold and wandered off to … Continue reading
“Later he requested from the See of Peter – always attentive to the poor, but corrupt now in him who sits there – not the right to restrict the alms or tithes that were due to the poor, not some choice position in the Church, and not to divert to himself what belonged to the poor. All he wanted was to fight against the errors of the world so that good seed could thrive and grow into the twenty-four plants that here surround you.[9]The word “See” is a reference to the papacy. It comes from the Latin word sedes which means seat or chair. Ordinarily, the Church would see remedying the plight of the poor as part of its … Continue reading Now made ready with ample doctrine, a strong will, and papal approval, he burst forth on the world like a great torrent sent from Heaven, violently crushing in its wake the forces of heresy. This great river of truth fed other streams which watered the garden of the Church and made its plants thrive once more.[10]As noted already, the elements of the life of St. Dominic related in this canto are often presented as a kind of mirror to the life of St. Francis presented in the previous canto. Here are a few … Continue reading
“If this was one wheel of the chariot the Church rode both to defend herself and conquer heresy on the field of battle, the excellence of the other must be clear to you, about whom the blessed Thomas spoke with such courtesy before I arrived.[11]At this point, St. Bonaventure ends his encomium of St. Dominic, using the image of a war chariot to show how he helped the Church defend herself in battle against heresy and false doctrine. Dominic … Continue reading Sadly, though, the path made by that great wheel has now faded, covered with mold where once there was crust.[12]As St. Thomas Aquinas had done for his Dominican confreres, so St. Bonaventure does for his Franciscan confreres: he notes how his Order has regressed from its founding values. The path laid out by … Continue reading His brethren who once followed him now walk backward in his footsteps.[13]Not only has the original track laid out by St. Francis faded from disuse, but now it seems that his followers are actually “back”-tracking on it. One could understand this in at least two ways. … Continue reading But the time for the harvest is coming, and just how bad the crop is will soon be manifest as the weeds lament being separated from the wheat and cast out of the barn![14]Though there is no direct textual reference to it here, we know from history that the original rule of St. Francis was so strict that it actually led to a split in the order. Dante would almost … Continue reading I admit that if you search the pages of the great book of my Order you will occasionally find one that reads: ‘I am still faithful.’ But this cannot be said of those who follow Acquasparta or Casale and misread our Rule: one too loosely, the other too rigidly.[15]The image Bonaventure uses here for the Franciscan Order is a book with each page a monk. Sadly, he reports, one will not find many pages noting faithful monks.Matthew of Acquasparta became the … Continue reading
“I am the soul of Bonaventure of Bagnoregio, and when I led my confreres, worldly concerns always came last.[16]Historically, St. Bonaventure is probably the most significant Franciscan after St. Francis himself. He is sometimes referred to as the second founder of the Order. He was the seventh head of the … Continue reading Here to the right in this crown of lights I am joined by Illuminato and Augustine, first followers of the poor Francis, barefooted and wearing his cord.[17]Bonaventure now names the eleven other lights who accompany him in this second crown. The first two are Franciscan monks, Illuminato and Augustine. Among the twenty-four lights in the two crowns … Continue reading Next to them is the theologian Hugh of St. Victor and the scholar Peter Mangiador.[18]Hugh of St. Victor was a Saxon, born in 1096. In 1115, he moved to the monastery of St. Victor in Paris where he taught theology and philosophy. Fifteen years later he was appointed to the chair of … Continue reading There is Peter of Spain whose writings still illumine men on earth.[19]Peter of Spain was born in Lisbon in 1226. He also studied in Paris and became well-known for his 12-volume manual of logic. In 1273 he became the Archbishop of Braga. The following year he was made … Continue reading Nathan the Prophet joins[20]Next, Bonaventure names Nathan the prophet. Nathan was not a “writing prophet,” but was a court prophet (an advisor) to King David. Most famously, he appears in 2 Samuel (chapters 11-12:24), the … Continue reading us along with John Chrysostom the Patriarch,[21]St. John Chrysostom (347-407) was the famed Patriarch of Constantinople. Noted for his outstanding teaching and preaching, and for his many writings, he was called “Golden Tongued” (Chrysostomos) … Continue reading Anselm of Canterbury,[22]St. Anselm (1033-1109) was born in Aosta in the far northwestern region of Italy (about 55 miles north of Turin). At the age of 27, he became a monk at the monastery of Bec (about 25 miles southwest … Continue reading and the Roman Donatus, known for his teachings on grammar.[23]Aelius Donatus (315-380) was a Roman scholar who wrote commentaries on the plays of Terence and the works of Virgil. His most notable work, still popular in the Middle Ages, was his manual of … Continue reading Here also are the scholar of Holy Writ, Rabanus of Maintz,[24]Next comes Rabanus Maurus (776-856). He was born in Mainz (20 miles southwest of Frankfurt) and joined the Benedictine Order at their monastery in at Fulda (about 50 miles northeast of Frankfurt). … Continue reading and to my left is the prophet Joachim of Calabria.[25]Last, Bonaventure names Joachim of Calabria, sometimes known as Joachim of Fiore (1145-1202). He was born in Celico, a short distance from Cosenza in southern Italy. After making a pilgrimage to the … Continue reading
“Thus the ardent courtesy and gentle words of Brother Thomas about my Francis encouraged me to reciprocate and praise his great Dominic, joined as I did so by this luminous fellowship here with me.”[26]In a simple and eloquent way, Bonaventure brings his narrative about St. Dominic (and Dante’s two parallel cantos) to a close, happy to have been joined in praising him by all the spirits in this … Continue reading
Notes & Commentary
| ↑1 | Once St. Thomas Aquinas has finished naming all twelve saintly splendors in the first crown of lights above Dante and Beatrice, that crown is now joined by a second, larger, one that encircles it. Both crowns rotate in the same direction, and this harmony is matched by the singing of the souls on the two crowns. Both the music (Sirens) and the words (Muses) of the singing are beautiful beyond description. With this in mind, one is reminded of the Poet’s observation in Canto 12 of the Purgatorio (115ff): it is a place filled with singing, while in Hell one only hears shrieking. And in Paradise the singing is beyond compare. |
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| ↑2 | Dante’s use of nature imagery here aids the imagination in “seeing” the splendor of the concentric crowns which remind him of a double rainbow. The use of classical figures from Virgil and Ovid (Juno, Iris the Rainbow, Echo) combined with biblical ones (God, Noah) adds to the double effect he wants to convey here: the two crowns, the two groups of luminous saints, the two rainbows, the music and the words, the classical and biblical allusions. The implied intimacy here, another doubling, is also wonderful: the lights (saints) of the crowns, like lovers, wreathe themselves around Dante and Beatrice. Paradise itself, as we will continue to see through the Poet’s experience, is a constant weaving and interpenetration of God and the soul. (In my notes and commentary on Canto 9, I refer to Dante’s linguistic creativity with words like “inme” and “inyou” which are intended to signify this same interpenetration.) As a side note, the covenant between God and Noah, symbolized by the rainbow, can be seen as another form of interpenetration: a “contract” in which two parties come together. Note also how the arcs of the rainbow penetrate the earth to create (the hidden part of) a perfect circle. At the same time, the reflective harmony, or mirroring, of the two crowns, in addition to the rest of the imagery here, is a way of showing how these two cantos (11 and 12) cross and “reflect” each other in structure like an X: in Canto 11, a Dominican Saint reflects on the life of a Franciscan founder and Saint, and here in Canto 12, a Franciscan Saint will reflect on the life of a Dominican founder and Saint. |
| ↑3 | The sudden silence after the “festival” Dante and Beatrice have witnessed above them highlights what comes next. A voice reaches out, as it were, from the heart of one of the lights on the new crown and draws Dante to itself in another experience of intimate communication. He likens himself to a compass needle immediately pointing to the Saint who lovingly addresses him. As we will soon see, this is the voice of St. Bonaventure, a great Franciscan who became the seventh leader of the Order. Earlier, St. Thomas had referred to two “guides” for the Church. The first was St. Francis of Assisi. Bonaventure will now speak of the second one, St. Dominic Guzman. Note again the theme of intimacy here, as Bonaventure tells Dante that the two Saints shine together and that he cannot speak about one without including the other. In Florence, there were (and still are) two large monasteries of the Franciscans (at the church of Santa Croce) and the Dominicans (at the church of Santa Maria Novella). Most likely, Dante studied at both where he undoubtedly read the works of Bonaventure and Thomas Aquinas, in addition to his studies at the University of Bologna. Not only this, it is no secret that there were early and notable theological conflicts between university professors who were Franciscans and professors who were Dominicans. Dante may well be taking the high road here as his way of highlighting their similarities rather than their differences. |
| ↑4 | The first reference here is probably best understood as Christ’s death and his subsequent commissioning of the Apostles to go out into the world and preach the Good News. Eventually, in spite of the ups and downs of Christian history, God (the “eternal Emperor”) ordained that there be two guides (“champions,” Francis and Dominic) to guide the Church (the bride of Christ) and, by their words and deeds, bring back together its scattered adherents. I’m reminded here of a saying that some attribute to St. Francis: “Preach the word of God always. Use words if necessary.” As Robert Hollander notes in his commentary: “Francis (typified by love) is best represented by his deeds, Dominic (typified by knowledge), by his words.” The military language here might seem a bit out of place considering the affection we have seen displayed, except that St. Dominic named his new group the Order of Preachers, and early on they waged a considerable “battle” against the Albigensians and their heretical beliefs. |
| ↑5 | There is a great deal to consider here. First, this passage is literarily akin to blowing up a balloon until it pops. It’s perhaps one of the best examples of how Dante can draw out an explanation or description, only to reveal its subject at the very end. Here, he has given us several pieces of information about St. Dominic’s birthplace and his character, even before he was born. The west wind, whose “sweet breath” heralds the beginning of Spring for the rest of Europe, was said to originate off the Bay of Biscay (off northern Spain and southwestern France). The Pillars of Hercules (Gibraltar) were said to be the farthest western part of the known world and the Ganges River was the farthest eastern part. In summer time, from Italy, the sun would seem to set just beyond the west coast of Spain (Portugal). Quite a distance eastward from the west coast of Spain lies the small town of Calaroga (Calaruega), St. Dominic’s birthplace (in 1170) in the north central part of Spain, almost equidistant between Madrid and Bilbao on its northern coast. When St. Bonaventure says “…not far from the shore,” and considering the difference between medieval maps and ours, he’s referring to the northern shore of Spain which, in fact is almost 200 miles north of Calaroga. From the west coast, it would be about 300 miles. Calaroga was in the Kingdom of Castile when Dominic was born. Alfonso VIII was its king. In 1230 King Ferdinand III reunited the Kingdoms of Castile and Leon and the coat of arms of the new kingdom (in quarters) shows two lions and two castles. The rest of this passage presents the infant Dominic in legend-like terms: a staunch Christian, a holy athlete, both gentle and fierce. At the moment when his soul entered his body, he was gifted with such great powers of mind that he made his mother prophesy about him! One can see here, and particularly after reading these cantos about Sts. Francis and Dominic that, while they are paralleled in many ways, their presentations also show Francis endowed with great love and Dominic with great intellect. Robert Hollander calls attention to this in his commentary: “Dominic is never mentioned again in the poem, while Francis is. Nonetheless, Dante, here and for the rest of the Paradiso, makes the core “Dominican” value (knowledge) and the “Franciscan” one (love) so conjoined that a reader naturally resists (and should) any attempt to make Dante more a praiser of Dominic than of Francis (or vice versa), either of which understandings the text rather clearly and insistently strives to make all but impossible.” There are several passages from the Bible that Dante may have had in mind as he wrote about St. Dominic’s calling. In Psalm 51:6 we read: “You desired faithfulness even in the womb; you taught me wisdom in that secret place.” The prophet Isaiah says: “The Lord has called me from the womb” (49:1). And the prophet Jeremiah: “Before I formed you in the womb I knew you, before you were born I set you apart; I appointed you as a prophet to the nations” (1:5). Dominic’s mother dreamed (her prophecy) that she would give birth to a black and white dog holding a flaming torch in its mouth from which it set fire to the whole world! The Dominicans have been called “The Lord’s Dogs,” from the Latin Domini Canes. Their habit (religious garb) is black and white. About Dominic’s baptism, Ronald Martinez notes these parallels: “The marriage to faith at baptism is derived from Francis’s espousal of Poverty, and Dominic’s nurture by a mother, a godmother, and a bride, Faith, mirrors Francis’s treatment of Poverty as mother, bride, and lady-love.” Lastly, Dominic’s godmother dreamed that he was born with a bright star on his forehead, symbolizing how he would enlighten the world. |
| ↑6 | In Dante’s Italian, by the way, the word Christ is always rhymed with itself. This is the first of four times in the Paradiso when this happens. The image of Christ as the Gardener of the Church comes from his statement in the Gospel of St. John (15:5), where he states: “I am the vine and you are the branches.” Actually, much of the first half of chapter 15 is about the vineyard of the Lord, the vines, and the vine grower, who prunes the vines to make them grow and cuts off those branches that don’t bear fruit. As one of the two “guides” of Christ’s Church, we see St. Dominic here helping Him in that “Garden.” Later in his life, Dominic will be seen as a fierce protector of the vineyard of the Church in his battles against heretics. Note also that there are more parallels here between Dominic and Francis. Dominic’s “first love” was poverty; Francis married Lady Poverty. As a child, Dominic would lay on the ground; Francis and his monks often slept on the ground, and he commanded that when he died he be stripped naked and placed upon the bare earth. At the same time, historically, there has been tension among the commentators about which statement of Jesus Bonaventure is referring to when he says that Dominic “made it clear” that his first love was poverty, in imitation of his Master. Some scholars insist that the reference here is the first of the Beatitudes, where Jesus says: “Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven” (Matthew 5:3). Among the three traditional vows (poverty, chastity, and obedience) made by members of religious orders, the first is poverty. Other scholars prefer the story of Jesus and the rich young man in Matthew 19:16-22. In the end, Jesus tells him: “If you wish to be perfect, go, sell what you have and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven. Then come, follow me.” In one sense, it’s not hard to see either (or both) of the passages underlying Bonaventure’s observation. When Dominic says, “I have come for this,” he appears to be repeating the words of Jesus about his own preaching mission in St. Mark’s Gospel: “Let us go on to the nearby villages that I may preach there also. For this purpose have I come” (1:38). Recall that Dominic named his group the Order of Preachers. |
| ↑7 | Felix, in both Latin and Spanish, means happy. |
| ↑8 | Bonaventure makes clear that Dominic became a great theologian, but not like those whom Thomas Aquinas mentioned at the end of the previous canto, who strayed from the fold and wandered off to strange pastures. That reference was to those Dominican professors who abandoned the teaching and study of theology for other, less filling, subjects. Here, the words “not for worldly learning” make it clear that Dominic found true knowledge in Theology, and with this truth he could well tend the Garden of the Lord. |
| ↑9 | The word “See” is a reference to the papacy. It comes from the Latin word sedes which means seat or chair. Ordinarily, the Church would see remedying the plight of the poor as part of its universal mission, but note Dante’s veiled slam, not as an institution, but at the present occupant of that papal chair, Boniface VIII. Like St. Francis, Dominic sought papal approval of his new Order. Again referencing the present corruption of the papacy, Bonaventure makes clear that Dominic did not seek what were clearly three ecclesiastical abuses listed here. All he was interested in was papal approval of his new Order so its members could fight against heresy by their preaching and thereby keep the Garden of the Church healthy and fruitful. The “twenty-four plants” are the twelve figures in each of the two crowns of light that rotate above Dante and Beatrice. |
| ↑10 | As noted already, the elements of the life of St. Dominic related in this canto are often presented as a kind of mirror to the life of St. Francis presented in the previous canto. Here are a few other facts about the life of Dominic not presented in this canto. Starting at the age of 14, he spent the next ten years in study of the liberal arts and theology at the University of Palencia (the first university in Spain). At 24 he was ordained at the Cathedral of Osma (about 175 miles south of Bilbao). When he was 21, there was a terrible famine in Spain. In an act somewhat like St. Francis, he gave away all his possessions to feed the hungry. In 1204, he accompanied the Bishop of Osma on a diplomatic mission to Denmark for King Alfonso VIII. On their way back through the south of France, they encountered groups of Albigensians and the Cistercian monks (also known as Trappists) who had been unsuccessful in their work to convert them. They realized that the monks’ way of life was rather lax compared with the ascetical Albigensians. This led Dominic (and his later followers) to be more ascetical (and successful) in their lives as preachers. The Cistercian way of life probably needed reform at this time. Today, it is one of the most strict religious orders in the Church. Interestingly enough, the reader will recall Folquet of Marsiglia in Canto 9 in the Sphere of Venus. As noted there, he eventually underwent a conversion, became a monk, and later the bishop of Toulouse in France. As bishop, he was active in combating heresy (Albigensians) in his diocese and joined the preaching work of the Bishop of Osma and St. Dominic. Later, he took Dominic to Rome with him to support Dominic’s papal petition to found the Order of Preachers. Though St. Dominic is often mentioned in connection with the Inquisition, that institution didn’t actually start until about ten years after Dominic died in 1221 and his involvement is completely legendary. To complicate matters, it seems that the Inquisition (which was often staffed by members of the Dominican and Franciscan Orders) actually commissioned a painting by Pedro Berruguette depicting St. Dominic presiding over an auto da fé. Worn out by their labors and the ascetical lives they lived, both Sts. Francis and Dominic died young: Francis in 1226 when he was 44, and Dominic in 1221 when he was 51. |
| ↑11 | At this point, St. Bonaventure ends his encomium of St. Dominic, using the image of a war chariot to show how he helped the Church defend herself in battle against heresy and false doctrine. Dominic was one wheel of the chariot, and the other, he reminds us, was St. Francis. Previously, both Saints had been referred to as princes and guides of the Church, and Dominic as a gardener. |
| ↑12 | As St. Thomas Aquinas had done for his Dominican confreres, so St. Bonaventure does for his Franciscan confreres: he notes how his Order has regressed from its founding values. The path laid out by St. Francis has faded since many of his later followers no longer follow it faithfully. The “wheel” here is no longer from a chariot, but from a field cart. Instead of carrying a good harvest of grapes (whose juice would leave a crust in the barrels, probably a reference to some sediment or tartrate crystals in the wine), it carries inferior grapes that will only leave mold. |
| ↑13 | Not only has the original track laid out by St. Francis faded from disuse, but now it seems that his followers are actually “back”-tracking on it. One could understand this in at least two ways. Unfaithful Franciscans, still facing forward, are going backward by putting their feet exactly into the footsteps they just made. Or, unfaithful Franciscans have simply turned around and are now walking back over their own footsteps. |
| ↑14 | Though there is no direct textual reference to it here, we know from history that the original rule of St. Francis was so strict that it actually led to a split in the order. Dante would almost certainly have known this since he had several connections with the Franciscans during his life, and was buried in their church in Ravenna. The rule of the Franciscan Order has undergone several changes through the centuries, many of them were by St. Francis himself. At its original core were simply some passages from the Gospels with a heavy emphasis on a strict observance of poverty (owning nothing, begging for alms, accepting no money or other gifts, etc.), humility, and self-denial. As the Order grew and circumstances changed, there were additions and amendments that came from within the Order itself and from the papacy. But even at the time of Francis there were already different interpretations and different ways of following the rule. The problem is both complicated and convoluted. This difference in interpretations led to a split between those who held to a very strict and literal interpretation (e.g., the rule is identical with the Gospel) and those who were less strict. The former came to be known as the Spirituals (many of whom were among the zealous original followers of Francis) and the latter as the Conventuals (they lived in monasteries or convents). The bad harvest and the “weeds” being separated from the wheat may, in fact, be an allusion to the Spirituals. The image used here comes from St. Matthew’s Gospel (13:24-30). Bonaventure, who is speaking to Dante here, became the seventh head of the Order, from 1257 until his death in 1274, and had to deal with the disruptive Spirituals. So many of the disagreements they created had to do with how to interpret the vow of poverty. Not only this, they were deeply scandalized by the wealth of the Church and many in the hierarchy and claimed that their wealth nullified their high positions. The Spirituals wanted to create a new order so that they could follow the original rule literally, while the Conventuals were strongly opposed to this solution. By the time Dante had moved to Ravenna in 1318, there had been condemnations of the Spirituals as heretics, many were excommunicated, and some were even burned at the stake. Eventually, though there were clusters of them in various regions of Italy, their movement, gradually died out. |
| ↑15 | The image Bonaventure uses here for the Franciscan Order is a book with each page a monk. Sadly, he reports, one will not find many pages noting faithful monks. Matthew of Acquasparta became the eleventh head of the Order in 1287 (and was also named a Cardinal in the following year). As head of the Order, he introduced changes that relaxed some of the more severe aspects of the rule. These, of course, were strongly opposed by Ubertino of Casale, the leader of the Spirituals, who favored a strict and literal interpretation of the rule. Unfortunately, he crossed the line, as it were, by his open criticisms of the Church and its government, even claiming that all papal elections after Pope Celestine V were invalid. He was eventually condemned as a heretic and excommunicated. Matthew of Acquasparta was a strong supporter of Pope Boniface VIII, Dante’s nemesis. He appointed Cardinal Acquasparta to settle the dispute between the White and Black Guelphs in Florence. This embassy ended in failure, and not long after this, as we know, Dante was exiled from the Republic of Florence. Ubertino of Casale lectured in Florence (probably at the Franciscan church of Santa Croce), and Dante probably heard him. Most likely he would have read Casale’s popular book, Arbor vitae. Geographical note: Acquasparta is about 60 miles north of Rome and almost equidistant between Orvieto and Spoleto. Casale is about 45 miles east of Turin and about the same distance southwest of Milan. |
| ↑16 | Historically, St. Bonaventure is probably the most significant Franciscan after St. Francis himself. He is sometimes referred to as the second founder of the Order. He was the seventh head of the Franciscan Order, a brilliant theologian, a bishop, a cardinal, and later named as a Doctor of the Church, sometimes known as the Seraphic Doctor. He was born in 1221 in the town of Bagnoregio (about 55 miles north of Rome and about 19 miles south of Orvieto), and died in Lyon, France in 1274. As a child, he contracted a serious illness and was saved by the prayers of St. Francis himself. When he was 22, he joined the Franciscans and soon after enrolled at the University of Paris. Like his classmate, Thomas Aquinas, he was a brilliant student and teacher. Known as one of the great philosophers of the Middle Ages, he also authored many books and numerous shorter works. Like his classmate, Aquinas, his writings bring both theology and philosophy together in compatible ways. He is also the author of the official biography of St. Francis. After identifying himself, Bonaventure states that “worldly concerns always came last” when he was head of the Order. Here, he’s making it clear that, while he was not one of the Spirituals, it was spiritual concerns that were the most important mark of his leadership. The controversy between the Spirituals and the Conventuals still continued during his leadership. Some scholars suggest that by including this statement about Bonaventure’s leadership, Dante may be revealing certain personal leanings toward the Spirituals. |
| ↑17 | Bonaventure now names the eleven other lights who accompany him in this second crown. The first two are Franciscan monks, Illuminato and Augustine. Among the twenty-four lights in the two crowns circling above Dante and Beatrice, they have no claim to fame except that they were both among the earliest followers of St. Francis. That Bonaventure should mention them first is obviously a nod to their fidelity and their humility. Illuminato came from Rieti, a town about 45 miles northeast of Rome. Agustino came from Assisi. Illuminato accompanied Francis when he went to meet the Sultan, and he was also present at La Verna when Francis received the stigmata. Toynbee (Dictionary) notes that Agustino became head of the Franciscan province of Terra di Lavoro, a region north of Naples. He is said to have died on the same day and hour as St. Francis: October 3, 1226. |
| ↑18 | Hugh of St. Victor was a Saxon, born in 1096. In 1115, he moved to the monastery of St. Victor in Paris where he taught theology and philosophy. Fifteen years later he was appointed to the chair of theology, a position he held until he died in 1141. He was a voluminous writer and his works were often quoted by Thomas Aquinas in the following century. His reputation for learning was so great that he was known as the second Augustine. Two of his students, Richard of St. Victor and Peter Lombard, are among the great lights in the first crown. Peter Mangiador (also known as Peter Comestor), colloquially known as Peter the Eater (Mangiador/Comestor) was so named because he was a voracious reader. He was born in Troyes (about 90 miles southeast of Paris) in 1100. He studied in Paris and was a student of Peter Lombard. He held the chair in theology at the University of Paris from 1160-1169, and was made the Chancellor in 1164. He died in 1178. |
| ↑19 | Peter of Spain was born in Lisbon in 1226. He also studied in Paris and became well-known for his 12-volume manual of logic. In 1273 he became the Archbishop of Braga. The following year he was made a Cardinal, and in 1276 he was elected as Pope John XXI. He died after a short reign of only eight months. |
| ↑20 | Next, Bonaventure names Nathan the prophet. Nathan was not a “writing prophet,” but was a court prophet (an advisor) to King David. Most famously, he appears in 2 Samuel (chapters 11-12:24), the story of David’s adultery with Bathsheba and her subsequent pregnancy, the death of her husband Uriah, the death of her child, and the birth of Solomon. These chapters together make one of the most gripping stories in the Hebrew Bible. |
| ↑21 | St. John Chrysostom (347-407) was the famed Patriarch of Constantinople. Noted for his outstanding teaching and preaching, and for his many writings, he was called “Golden Tongued” (Chrysostomos) in Greek. He is known both as one of the early Fathers of the Church and as a Doctor of the Church. The city of Antioch in Syria was both his birthplace and the site of his early service to the Church. He was much loved by the people of Antioch and popular because of his eloquence, his writings, and his interpretation of Scripture. In 397, he was made Archbishop of Constantinople where he lived a simple life and insisted that his clergy do the same. Like Nathan the prophet, he was outspoken in his criticism of those in power, particularly the Empress Eudoxia for her scandalous lifestyle. She subsequently gathered a group of John’s (theological) enemies who convened an official synod (a church forum usually held to discuss a critical matter of doctrine or church teaching), which condemned and deposed him, and had him exiled. Fearing popular uprisings and riots, the emperor brought him back. After denouncing the empress again, he was banished for a second time, never to return. |
| ↑22 | St. Anselm (1033-1109) was born in Aosta in the far northwestern region of Italy (about 55 miles north of Turin). At the age of 27, he became a monk at the monastery of Bec (about 25 miles southwest of Rouen). He later became Prior (second in command) of that monastery, and soon after, the Abbot. In 1093 he was made Archbishop of Canterbury in southern England. As a scholar he authored several major theological works. |
| ↑23 | Aelius Donatus (315-380) was a Roman scholar who wrote commentaries on the plays of Terence and the works of Virgil. His most notable work, still popular in the Middle Ages, was his manual of elementary Latin grammar. For this he became known as “the people’s grammarian.” He is said to have been the teacher of St. Jerome, one of the early Fathers of the Church, and a Doctor of the Church, who is most famous for the first translation of the Bible into Latin. |
| ↑24 | Next comes Rabanus Maurus (776-856). He was born in Mainz (20 miles southwest of Frankfurt) and joined the Benedictine Order at their monastery in at Fulda (about 50 miles northeast of Frankfurt). After he was ordained he traveled in the Holy Land and then returned to Fulda where he was made Abbot of his monastery. Later he was appointed as Archbishop of Mainz. He is famous for his commentaries on various books of the Bible, and for these and many other notable theological works his reputation for learning was widespread. |
| ↑25 | Last, Bonaventure names Joachim of Calabria, sometimes known as Joachim of Fiore (1145-1202). He was born in Celico, a short distance from Cosenza in southern Italy. After making a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, he became a Cistercian monk. He was a mystic and lived much of his life as a hermit. He is noted for his commentaries on the Bible and other spiritual writings which became very popular among the Spiritual Franciscans. Though he may have been considered a prophet in his own day, it is hard to know the degree to which he really had the gift of prophecy. Some of his works were actually condemned by the Lateran Council in 1215. It is interesting that Dante has both Bonaventure here in the second crown, and Aquinas in the first crown, mention last two men with whom they had serious disagreements. And they stand to the left of the two narrators: Siger of Brabant and Joachim of Calabria. However, this is Paradise, and earthly disagreements are forgotten. |
| ↑26 | In a simple and eloquent way, Bonaventure brings his narrative about St. Dominic (and Dante’s two parallel cantos) to a close, happy to have been joined in praising him by all the spirits in this second crown. |