The great Eagle formed by souls in the sphere of Jupiter begins to speak to Dante. Though the Eagle is made of many souls, Dante hears only one voice; and though he hears it speak using singular pronouns, his mind hears them as plural. Once again, Dante is beset by a pressing question and he graciously asks the Eagle to answer it. The question – and the whole of this Canto – is about Divine Justice. The Eagle tells Dante that humans simply cannot fathom the workings of God’s Justice, though we have hints of it and we have the guidance of the Scriptures. Dante’s question, spoken by the Eagle, has to do with the eternal salvation of a good person who has never heard of Christ and does not have the Christian faith. Why, Dante wants to know, should this person be condemned through no fault of his own? As an indirect answer, the Eagle tells Dante that there is no one in Heaven who did not have faith. Telling Dante that many who believe in Christ will be surprised on the Day of Judgment, the Eagle then proceeds to list numerous great figures whose deeds are written in God’s Great Book – deeds that will shock even pagans.
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There now appeared before me, with its wings outspread, the sight of that great eagle formed by those rejoicing souls. Each soul was like a magnificent ruby set aflame by a ray of sunshine that reflected it directly into my eyes.[1]The skywriting souls in the previous canto have by now shaped the final M of the sentence: “Diligite iustitiam qui iudicatis terram” (“Love justice, you who judge the earth” [Wisdom … Continue reading Believe me when I tell you that what I now describe for you no tongue has spoken or pen written or fantasy imagined: I could see the beak move and actually hear it speak! But when it said words like I and Mine they came to my mind as We and Ours. And so that eagle spoke: “Because I was just and pious I am exalted here in this place of glory – higher than desire might conceive. On earth I left an example of my good deeds which even evil men praise, though they would do better to follow them.”[2]Dante steps out of his Poem for a moment (again) to inform us that he is about to tell us something that has never been written or imagined. More than likely, this is the Scripture passage he had in … Continue reading
Though all of those sparkling souls were speaking, there was but one voice – like the warm glow that comes from many burning coals. Longing to hear more from them, I cried out: “O you flowers of everlasting joy, whose varied aromas blend into one heavenly fragrance, speak to me now with words I have been hungry to hear but cannot find on earth. I know that though eternal justice is seen in a different mirror among these heavenly spheres, you here can see its light directly. And so you know how eager I am to hear what you have to tell me because you also know the question I have struggled with for so long.”[3]Thinking of a fragrant garden, Dante addresses the spirits here, wanting to delve deeper into the nature of Divine Justice. He asks the great eagle (as both one and many) to read the question he has … Continue reading
Hearing my plea, and like a falcon freed from its hood and eager to fly, that great eagle, made of all those souls, sang out in praise of the Creator with a hymn known only to those who live forever in Heaven.[4]Falconry was a sport of the rich in the Middle Ages. Adult falcons who were trained to hunt were tethered to a thick leather glove worn by the hunter and their heads were covered with a hood. When … Continue reading Then speaking to me it said: “In his grand act of creation, God with his compass traced out the orderly boundaries of the universe and marked some things visible and others invisible, an act far superior to any human abilities. Even that first prideful angel – the most perfect of creatures – fell down from Heaven unripe, as it were, because he did not wait for the light of God to finish him. Thus, we can see that every lesser creature is too small to contain Infinite Goodness, which is measured only by Itself.[5]The eagle’s image here suggests God the Creator as a cosmic architect with a great compass measuring and marking off various sections of the universe – seen and unseen. And, a fascinating Dantean … Continue reading
“This being the case, our vision – which is just one of the rays of light that come from the First Mind and which is present in all created things – even our weak vision cannot fail to see that its Source is far beyond what our eyes can see here. Therefore, earthly vision can no more understand the workings of Divine Justice than can a man’s eyes see to the ocean floor. Near the shore you can see it, but not when you are at sea. Nevertheless, the bottom is still there, but hidden by depths too great for your eyes to penetrate.[6]What the eagle is telling Dante here is that even they, the angels and souls in Heaven, have a limited vision of the workings of Divine Justice. And if that is the case, imagine how inferior our … Continue reading
“And consider this: the only light that matters is the Light of God. It comes from the sky that is forever clear. Everything else is darkness, shadowy, poisoned by error. Thus you can now understand what was hidden from you about God’s Justice, and which raised within you so many questions.[7]In the end, the eagle tells Dante, the answers to his questions will only be found in God. Human intelligence is not only insufficient, it often clouds the mind from seeing the True Light. If Dante … Continue reading For example, you will say: ‘Suppose there is a man born in India where no one knows or speaks of Christ. He is a good and worthy person, upright and free from sin. But he does not have the Christian faith and dies unbaptized. Where is the justice in condemning his soul? Is he guilty simply because he does not share our faith?’[8]As I noted above, ordinarily this question would not have been raised in Dante’s time because it was the general teaching of the Church that there was no salvation outside the Church (extra … Continue reading Now I ask you,[9]Here, the eagle very pointedly changes from the formal Italian “you” form (voi) to the familiar “you” form (tu), aiming its message directly at Dante himself instead of the rest of the yous … Continue reading who do you think you are to sit where justice sits and pass judgments on things that are far beyond you when you can’t even see beyond your own nose! If it weren’t for the guidance of Scripture, you might have cause to argue with me and there might be room for doubt. You earthly creatures are so thick-headed! You need to understand that the Will of God, which is always good, never wavers from that supreme Goodness. Only those things that move in harmony with that Will are just. Created good does not sway it; rather the light it sends forth from God – that creates what is good.”[10]As it turns out, the eagle’s first answer to Dante’s question here is not an answer but a rebuke for his presumption. In terms of guidance from Scripture, there are passages the eagle/Dante … Continue reading
As the mother stork will fly around the nest after feeding her young, and they will look up at her, just so did that sacred eagle moved by all those souls that made it circle around me, and just so did I lift up my head to watch it.[11]The Great Cross of the Spirits in recent cantos was described by Dante as being of near-galactic proportions. This great eagle may be similar, and to imagine it moving (flying) around above Dante, … Continue reading Circling and singing, that holy bird spoke to me: “Just as my song is too high for you to comprehend, so is the nature of Eternal Judgment far beyond the comprehension of mortals.” At that, the great eagle stood still – so reminiscent of Rome’s great symbol.[12]Not unlike his first encounter with Cacciaguida, whose words at that moment were too high for Dante to comprehend, it is the same here with the eagle. Its song, like the workings of Divine Justice … Continue reading And then it spoke again: “Know this: no soul ever rose up to this heavenly kingdom who did not have faith in Christ before or after he died for us.[13]Having made sure, earlier, that Dante kept his distance from the workings of Divine Justice, the eagle here gives him the answer he’s looking for, that all will somehow be saved. He may be … Continue reading Now, there are those who might cry out, ‘Christ, Christ!’ But I tell you that on the Day of Judgment they will be farther from Him than those who never knew him. On that day, those Christians will be condemned by the pagans as the sheep will be separated from the goats – one group rich forever, and the other poor![14]On the other hand, the eagle states clearly that those who might think their salvation is assured because they can call out “Christ!” may find themselves far behind those who never knew him. Here … Continue reading
“What will the heathen from Persia say to your own kings on that day when they see the great Book opened and read about all their evil deeds?[15]Again, Dante probably has in mind here Jesus’ statement in St. Matthew’s Gospel (12:41-42) about how the Gentiles or pagans who were converted at the preaching of St. John the Baptist will rise … Continue reading There[16]From this point to the end of the Canto, the eagle strongly condemns various kings and leaders in Dante’s time for their wickedness. they will read all about the jealousy of Albert of Austria that led him to devastate the kingdom of Prague.[17]This is Albert I, Emperor but never crowned from 1298 to 1308. In 1304, he fomented a war against his brother-in-law, Wenceslaus II, which left Bohemia in ruins. Then they will read about the suffering in France caused by Philip the Fair when he inflated its money. A wild boar will frighten his horse and cause his death.[18]This is Philip IV, who devalued the French currency to finance his wars which caused great hardship throughout the country. He was killed in 1314 by falling from his horse while hunting when a boar … Continue reading After this, they will read how pride brought both English and Scot to war over boundaries they contested.[19]This is a reference to the boarder wars between Edward I of England and Robert the Bruce of Scotland, beginning in 1296 with Edward’s invasion of Scotland, leading eventually to Robert’s victory … Continue reading In that Book they will read of the soft life of Ferdinand and Wenceslaus’ lack of valor.[20]This is a reference to Ferdinand IV of Castile and Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia, both of whom were criticized for their luxurious lifestyles. They will discover there only one good act by Charles of Naples – the Cripple of Jerusalem – and a thousand evil ones.[21]A reference to Charles II of Anjou, also known as Charles the Lame. He took the title of “King of Jerusalem” from his father, though it was never formally given to him.In the Italian of Canto 19 … Continue reading The Book will reveal the cowardice and greed of Frederick of Sicily, where the father of noble Aeneas died. And to show how worthless Frederick was, the Book will allot him a small space crammed with tiny words![22]This section refers not to the Emperor Frederick II but to Frederick II, King of Sicily from 1296 to 1337. We read of the death of Aeneas’ father, Anchises, in Virgil’s Aeneid (III: 692-718). … Continue reading Reading on, it will be clear how debauched were the two James’s – his brother and uncle.[23]His brother was James II of Aragon, and his uncle was James I of Majorca. The debauchery is a reference to their poor government as a disgrace to their crowns. The deeds of Norway’s Haakon[24]This is Haakon V Magnusson (1299–1319). He was often at war with Sweden and Denmark, though some commentators wonder whether Dante’s reference is to his brother or even his father. and Portugal’s Dionysius[25]Commentators are not sure why Dante included King Dionysius (1279-1325) here because he was, on the whole, a good king. He was known as the “Farmer King” and the “Poet King,” and he was … Continue reading will be written there along with those of Rascia’s king who disgraced himself by counterfeiting the money of Venice.[26]This is King Stephen Urosh II (1275-1321), king of Rascia, a region in modern-day Serbia. He was often at war with Greece. Counterfeiters, recall, are punished Canto 30 of the Inferno. O happy Hungary if it escapes such wickedness;[27]This reference is to King Andrew III of Hungary (1290-1301), who usurped the throne from Charles Robert Martel, son of Charles Martel who appeared back in Canto 8. Eventually, Charles Robert got it … Continue reading Navarre too, if she uses the Pyrenees as a rampart to keep herself at peace.[28]The Kingdom of Navarre was situated between southern France and Northern Spain, divided by the Pyrenees. The ruler here would be Joanna of Navarre, who would have done better to keep her distance … Continue reading And if anyone needs further proof let them look at Nicosia and Famagosta whose evil beast of a king makes them lament and suffer as he strives to outdo the wickedness of that pack!”[29]In other words, if anyone needs proof about the coming fate of Navarre, they only need to look at the wickedness and corruption of Henry II, the French King of Cyprus. His rule was marked by … Continue reading
Notes & Commentary
| ↑1 | The skywriting souls in the previous canto have by now shaped the final M of the sentence: “Diligite iustitiam qui iudicatis terram” (“Love justice, you who judge the earth” [Wisdom 1:1]) into a great eagle with countless sparkling, ruby-like spirits within it. This is reminiscent of the Great Cross of Spirits in the sphere of Mars. That the spirits are red like rubies attests to the depth of their ardor as they reflect that love of God onto Dante as he beholds them. In the Book of Wisdom (3:7f) we read: “The just shall shine, and shall run to and fro like sparks among the reeds. They shall judge nations, and rule over people, and their Lord shall reign for ever.” |
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| ↑2 | Dante steps out of his Poem for a moment (again) to inform us that he is about to tell us something that has never been written or imagined. More than likely, this is the Scripture passage he had in mind here: “No eye has seen, no ear has heard, and no mind has imagined the things that God has prepared for those who love him” (1 Corinthians. 2:9). Then, of course, he steps back into the Poem and proceeds to tell us what it is. The great eagle composed of countless glittering spirits actually begins to speak – and Dante can see its beak move and he can hear what it says. But before he tells us the words he heard, he gives us a simple lesson on how grammar works in Heaven: possessive words that we use, like “I” and “mine,” actually come to Dante’s mind as their plurals – “we” and “ours.” In other words, the experience of Heaven is always communal, always shared, always together. The eagle is composed of the spirits who give it form (just rulers, leaders, judges, etc.), but it speaks with one voice. In God, all the spirits speak as one. Translated into heavenly language, this is what Dante heard: “Because we were just and pious we are exalted here in this place of glory – higher than desire might conceive. On earth we left an example of our good deeds which even evil men praise, though they would do better to follow them.” |
| ↑3 | Thinking of a fragrant garden, Dante addresses the spirits here, wanting to delve deeper into the nature of Divine Justice. He asks the great eagle (as both one and many) to read the question he has in his mind and answer it in a way that he can understand. While acknowledging that the spirits in Heaven see justice differently (in the Mind of God), he begs to come as close to that heavenly insight as they do. Their answer, he says, will come to him as the fragrance of the splendid garden he has imagined them to be. At this point, the Reader will need to be patient as the answer Dante is looking for is quite a ways off. |
| ↑4 | Falconry was a sport of the rich in the Middle Ages. Adult falcons who were trained to hunt were tethered to a thick leather glove worn by the hunter and their heads were covered with a hood. When the hunt began, the hood was removed, the tether was released, and the bird flew after its prey. Note how music and singing are becoming more common as Dante rises through the heavenly spheres. The hymn of praise he now hears, however, is so deep and mystical that it is reserved only to the souls themselves. Dante’s exclusion here is not to be taken as a slight, but as a foretaste of what he will soon learn: the answers to his questions are not only beyond his comprehension, but even to the souls in Heaven. |
| ↑5 | The eagle’s image here suggests God the Creator as a cosmic architect with a great compass measuring and marking off various sections of the universe – seen and unseen. And, a fascinating Dantean concept: while the grand act of creation far exceeded anything we humans could have done, God, in His infinite wisdom, held back from creating a universe that would have been more than we can comprehend. Perhaps that is precisely what is reserved for us in Heaven. Nevertheless, given the state of astronomy and cosmology in Dante’s time, the eagle’s remark is prescient. Even though present-day discoveries are greatly advanced, astronomers and cosmologists are still challenged by the immensity of what is yet to be discovered about the universe. Furthermore, and this is also fascinating, could it have been that Lucifer, God’s most perfect creation, was intended to know more of the universe and more of the nature of Divine Justice than any other angelic or human creation? Except that he fell from the tree, as it were, unripe, because in his pride he couldn’t wait for the fullness of the Divine Light to ripen and perfect him. Thus, the rest of creation can only approach Infinite Goodness but not attain its fullness, which is the very essence of God’s God-ness. |
| ↑6 | What the eagle is telling Dante here is that even they, the angels and souls in Heaven, have a limited vision of the workings of Divine Justice. And if that is the case, imagine how inferior our earthly vision is compared to those in Heaven. It is simply too vast to comprehend. The example of seeing down to the bottom of the ocean is an excellent one for this case: we, with our limited earthly vision, can see only so far into the depths of Divine Justice. And though our sight might be limited, what we wish to see is still there. In other words, we can no more penetrate the depths of Divine Justice than we can see to the bottom of the ocean. |
| ↑7 | In the end, the eagle tells Dante, the answers to his questions will only be found in God. Human intelligence is not only insufficient, it often clouds the mind from seeing the True Light. If Dante can accept this, he can begin to see that his questions are fundamentally unanswerable. And now, able to read his mind, the eagle brings forth an example (actually the problem) that has bothered Dante and that raises the question of Divine Judgment. |
| ↑8 | As I noted above, ordinarily this question would not have been raised in Dante’s time because it was the general teaching of the Church that there was no salvation outside the Church (extra Ecclesiam nulla salus). This medieval axiom had been solemnly articulated at the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215. On the other hand, it was never understood by the best theologians as a condemnation of those, who through no fault of their own, had never heard of Christ and were not baptized into the Christian faith. What Dante is doing here is dramatizing the tension between the absoluteness of Divine Judgement on the one hand, and the limits of our ability to understand it on the other. And while this seemingly open-and-shut example appears unjust, one might appeal to the mercy of God and claim that ignorance of the faith may not have the absolute consequences it seems to have. Let us see how this goes. In Dante’s time, one has to admit that it would have been virtually impossible for much of the world to have known of Christ and the Christian faith. And so the example might very well be unjust. At the same time, one might use Scripture to excuse this unenlightened person. In St. Paul’s Letter to the Romans we read: “But how can they call on him in whom they have not believed? And how can they believe in him of whom they have not heard? And how can they hear without someone to preach? …. Thus faith comes from what is heard” (10:14-17). Perhaps Dante was also thinking of Virgil here, or the virtuous pagans in Limbo (where this anonymous Indian might be sent). |
| ↑9 | Here, the eagle very pointedly changes from the formal Italian “you” form (voi) to the familiar “you” form (tu), aiming its message directly at Dante himself instead of the rest of the yous in this passage, which is directed at humans in general (voi). |
| ↑10 | As it turns out, the eagle’s first answer to Dante’s question here is not an answer but a rebuke for his presumption. In terms of guidance from Scripture, there are passages the eagle/Dante definitely has in mind. From the Book of Wisdom (9:13) we read: “Who knows God’s counsel, who can conceive what He intends?” And chapters 38 and 39 in the Book of Job are filled with God’s questions to Job intended to interrogate him as the eagle interrogates Dante. Beyond these, the eagle is saying that the Bible as a whole is intended to be a source and guide for faith. The eagle then directs its rebuke to “thick-headed” humans in general, who fail to comprehend that the will of God is always a direct manifestation of His goodness. If we (Dante) seek justice, then we must maintain a harmonious relationship with what is right because what is right is already an image of the Divine Will. In the end, the only question Dante can ask is whether earthly justice is in conformity to God’s will. |
| ↑11 | The Great Cross of the Spirits in recent cantos was described by Dante as being of near-galactic proportions. This great eagle may be similar, and to imagine it moving (flying) around above Dante, propelled by the countless glittering souls that comprised it, must have been a stupendous sight. Describing the eagle as a mother bird circling above its nest after feeding, Dante includes himself as one of its chicks feeding, most likely, on the truths he is learning about Divine Justice. |
| ↑12 | Not unlike his first encounter with Cacciaguida, whose words at that moment were too high for Dante to comprehend, it is the same here with the eagle. Its song, like the workings of Divine Justice itself, is too high for the human intellect to grasp. And as if to emphasize this point, the eagle pauses mid-air. With its outstretched wings it reminds Dante of the symbol of Rome. |
| ↑13 | Having made sure, earlier, that Dante kept his distance from the workings of Divine Justice, the eagle here gives him the answer he’s looking for, that all will somehow be saved. He may be following St. Thomas Aquinas here, who stated: “It is certain that God will impart to him [the one who never knew Christ] the necessary truths of faith, either through interior illumination, or through a preacher of the faith” (De Veritate xiv, ii, i). |
| ↑14 | On the other hand, the eagle states clearly that those who might think their salvation is assured because they can call out “Christ!” may find themselves far behind those who never knew him. Here Dante is thinking of Jesus’ statement in the Gospel of Matthew (7:21): “Not everyone who says to me, ‘Lord, Lord,’ will enter the kingdom of heaven, but only the one who does the will of my Father in heaven.” And the image of separating the sheep from the goats also comes from St. Matthew (25:31-46) and the story of the Last Judgment. We can even go back to the aphorism on nobility in Canto 16:9: “Nobility [in this case, Christianity] is a mantle quick to shrink! Unless we add to it from day to day, time with its shears will trim off more and more.” |
| ↑15 | Again, Dante probably has in mind here Jesus’ statement in St. Matthew’s Gospel (12:41-42) about how the Gentiles or pagans who were converted at the preaching of St. John the Baptist will rise up at the Judgment and condemn the hypocrisy of the Jewish religious teachers. The “great Book” is a reference to the Book of Revelation at the end of the New Testament. There we read in (20:12): “I saw the dead, the great and the lowly, standing before the throne, and scrolls were opened. Then another scroll was opened, the book of life. The dead were judged according to their deeds, by what was written in the scrolls.” |
| ↑16 | From this point to the end of the Canto, the eagle strongly condemns various kings and leaders in Dante’s time for their wickedness. |
| ↑17 | This is Albert I, Emperor but never crowned from 1298 to 1308. In 1304, he fomented a war against his brother-in-law, Wenceslaus II, which left Bohemia in ruins. |
| ↑18 | This is Philip IV, who devalued the French currency to finance his wars which caused great hardship throughout the country. He was killed in 1314 by falling from his horse while hunting when a boar ran between the legs of his horse. Remember that the Commedia takes place in the year 1300. Note, however, that this passage is stated in the future, which tells us that this canto (at least) was written after 1314. |
| ↑19 | This is a reference to the boarder wars between Edward I of England and Robert the Bruce of Scotland, beginning in 1296 with Edward’s invasion of Scotland, leading eventually to Robert’s victory in 1314 and claiming the throne of Scotland. Recognition of Scottish independence came with a treaty in 1328. |
| ↑20 | This is a reference to Ferdinand IV of Castile and Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia, both of whom were criticized for their luxurious lifestyles. |
| ↑21 | A reference to Charles II of Anjou, also known as Charles the Lame. He took the title of “King of Jerusalem” from his father, though it was never formally given to him. In the Italian of Canto 19 here, Dante conceives of “The Book” of Life that will be read out on the Day of Judgment as a kind of ledger with marks and other symbols in it. Here, Dante put the Roman numeral “I” to indicate Charles’ one good deed and an “M” to indicate his thousands of evil deeds. The scriptural reference here is the Book of Revelation (20:12): “And I saw the dead, great and small, standing before the throne, and the books were opened. Then another book was opened, which is the book of life. And the dead were judged by what was written in the books, according to what they had done.” |
| ↑22 | This section refers not to the Emperor Frederick II but to Frederick II, King of Sicily from 1296 to 1337. We read of the death of Aeneas’ father, Anchises, in Virgil’s Aeneid (III: 692-718). Once again, because Frederick was a worthless king, the “ledger” will devote only a tiny space with tiny words and abbreviations to describe him. A jabbing insult! Medieval manuscripts, precious as they were, often used symbols and abbreviations to save space. In other words, Frederick wasn’t worth wasting space on. |
| ↑23 | His brother was James II of Aragon, and his uncle was James I of Majorca. The debauchery is a reference to their poor government as a disgrace to their crowns. |
| ↑24 | This is Haakon V Magnusson (1299–1319). He was often at war with Sweden and Denmark, though some commentators wonder whether Dante’s reference is to his brother or even his father. |
| ↑25 | Commentators are not sure why Dante included King Dionysius (1279-1325) here because he was, on the whole, a good king. He was known as the “Farmer King” and the “Poet King,” and he was married to Isabel (later St. Isabel), daughter of Pedro III of Aragon. |
| ↑26 | This is King Stephen Urosh II (1275-1321), king of Rascia, a region in modern-day Serbia. He was often at war with Greece. Counterfeiters, recall, are punished Canto 30 of the Inferno. |
| ↑27 | This reference is to King Andrew III of Hungary (1290-1301), who usurped the throne from Charles Robert Martel, son of Charles Martel who appeared back in Canto 8. Eventually, Charles Robert got it back. |
| ↑28 | The Kingdom of Navarre was situated between southern France and Northern Spain, divided by the Pyrenees. The ruler here would be Joanna of Navarre, who would have done better to keep her distance from Philip (the Fair) IV of France and his son, Louis X (who annexed Navarre to the kingdom of France after her death). |
| ↑29 | In other words, if anyone needs proof about the coming fate of Navarre, they only need to look at the wickedness and corruption of Henry II, the French King of Cyprus. His rule was marked by corruption and rivalry, thus his nickname, “the beast.” Nicosia and Famagosta are the principal cities of the island. |